Is Schizophrenia a Biological Disorder Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Is Schizophrenia a Biological Disorder - Essay Example Because of the scarcity of evidence that can be relied upon the disease is difficult to be identified with symptoms only. Because of its unpredictable nature also because of lack of knowledge about its causes this disease is rightly called cancer of mental illness. Some scientists believe that researchers were successful in finding out the biological background of the disease in 1990s. The modern diagnostic equipment are somewhat useful in identifying the biological root causes of the disease. But the whole truth is yet to be discovered. This disease was recognized and treated in its primitive forms about 3,000 years ago. Although the present name schizophrenia was not used in those days it was called dementia, and late demence precoce etc. But later on a German psychiatrist, Emil Kraepelin presented a theory to call it a single disease quite similar to dementia praecox. But the theory of Kraeplin was rebuted by Eugene Bleuler. Bleuler thought that it is not a single disease similar to dementia praecox. According to symptoms clinical picture schizophrenia is divided into five subtypes. A person suffering from schizophrenia may not have symptoms of a single category so the usefulness of this division to subtypes is still considered a not very effective and reliable Schizophrenia is quite common disease it accounts for almost 50 percent of most of mental disorders. This syndrome is equally common in men and women. ... A person suffering from schizophrenia may not have symptoms of a single category so the usefulness of this division to subtypes is still considered a not very effective and reliable Prevailing views about Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is quite common disease it accounts for almost 50 percent of most of mental disorders. This syndrome is equally common in men and women. It is observed that disease may attack patient in his or her 30s. But this is not a hard and fast rule. It can appear in the later age of the patient also. It is also said that most of the patients of this disease live in poorer areas of the cities. Some scholars think that the patients suffering from this disease can not survive financially in well off or middle class areas because of the disease so they have to move to the poorer areas. Others have a different view, they think that this disease most commonly cause by stress and anxiety related to financial problems, that is why most of the patients are from poorer areas of the cities. Common Symptoms Traditionally it is not easy for a therapist to assess and diagnose the person with this syndrome. The doctor would have to carefully review the symptoms prevalent in the patient. The doctors have to rely upon the information provided by the people closely affiliated to the patient. The doctors also confirm their assessment by keeping the person under observation and results of mental status are also used for getting correct diagnosis. Therapist mostly focus on thoughts disorders, deception. Patient can get preoccupied by illusions relate religion or beliefs. Many people with schizophrenia have disturbances in expressions and emotions. The patients may no feel no regard or connection with

Colonialism and Its Effect in Nigeria Essay Example for Free

Colonialism and Its Effect in Nigeria Essay Ekundayo Falade Professor Baldwin MA5- Research Paper Final Draft 5/6/2013 Colonization Colonization is term used to refer to a specific type of interaction between states, countries, or territories. Colonization is said to have taken place in the event one country, state, or territory induces and or claims total sovereignty over a different country, state, or territory, which lies outside its geographical boundaries or influence. The country, state, or territory that loses its sovereignty becomes the colony while the other nation is labeled as the colonizer. The entire phenomenon created therein is referred to colonization. It is important to note that the impact of colonization is long felt even after the colonizer has left the colony. This is because the changes that take place during the course of colonization stretch far much beyond the administration take over. Here, the changes that take place with regard to the social, economic, and cultural settings of the society are the main reminders of colonization long after the colonizers have left. The influence of the colonizers with regard to the socio-cultural environment of the colony is the main scar of colonization long after the wounds have healed. In any environment where colonization has taken place, the main impact of colonization is analyzed with regard to the element of stagnation that is birthed out of losing the ability to institute development and progress from a society’s own point of view. In the analysis of colonialism, it is important to not only analyze the administrative activities, but also take into serious considerations the various economic, social, and cultural activities within the discussion. The Falade ? impact of colonialism – under effective analysis is divided into social, cultural, political, and ecological assessment topics. Throughout the course of this essay, the various influences of colonialism in the various ecological and political settings of the third world countries are analyzed with the main aim of underscoring the stagnation that is caused because of colonialism and the influence therein. There are varied explanations with regard to the term third world. In these – varying definitions – there are some common definitive elements that feature in the distinctive definitions. Generally, third world country is a term employed in referring to a country that does not belong to the soviet bloc of nations, the state-socialist nations, the west, or the European countries. The third world countries that will be analyzed in the course of this paper are from Africa and the region around India. There are two sides of the coin presented the phenomena of colonization. Here, there are both advantages and disadvantages contained in the activities shaping up and general impact of colonization. The most prominent advantage – as it is refereed to of colonization, is the progress instituted by the colonizing power. In most – if not all – of the colonization activities, the colonizer has instituted both direct and indirect progressive measures. The negative implication of colonialism is presented in the general oppression of the colony presented in the lack of freedoms and fundamental human rights. One of the benefits of colonization can be traced back to the impact of colonialism in India. Here, the colonizers instituted irrigation measures that had a profound impact on the food security in the country. This increase and enhancement in food production also brought about negative effects with regard to health. Because of the establishment and widespread of the irrigation system, there was an increase in the spread of malaria because of water logging. The irrigation system brought with Falade ? it a rich environment for the breeding of mosquitoes, which caused harm on the health of the people near the various areas. The third world has benefited from colonialism in different ways but the most prominent is presented in the exposure of these countries to the developments in the developed countries. Colonization is presented as the link through which the third world was connected to the developed world. The exposure from colonization has helped the various nations to achieve development in the various social, economic, political, and cultural settings. Most – if not all – scholars argue that the infrastructure through which the economic process was not only triggered, but also developed was through colonization. Even though this is the case, the negative implications of colonialism are too big a topic to be left untouched. The scars from the experiences and activities that shaped up colonization stretch way beyond the healed scars into different time eras. Numerous profound changes have taken place with regard to judicial and legal practices because of the implementation of the Human Rights Act of 1998. Although it might have become operational in 2000, the changes that have been made within the judicial setting far much surpass the reforms that took place since the inception of the Human Rights Act up until the time it was implemented. The difference that has been brought into the functionality of the judiciary can be likened to the difference between day and night. Given the chance to undertake the same research again, I would major on the institutional reforms that have been birthed out of the implementation and integration of the Human Rights Acts into law. Ecological exploration The colonization of Nigeria dates back to 1959. Nigeria was colonized by Britain and the interaction between these two nation dates back to hundreds of years before the 16th century. During their initial exploration, the British interacted with people from modern day Nigeria and Falade ? the surrounding areas in different ways. Today, the boundaries that define the state of Nigeria were as section of larger region that was targeted by the British in their explorations. A close analysis of the interactions that existed between the British and the locals in Nigeria prove that the British were not out to colonize the nation. Initially, the first British citizens to settle in Nigeria and the surroundings were merchants and missionaries. The initial interactions between the Nigerians and the British led to knowledge about Christianity and economic improvements. There were also extensive interactions that led to the alteration of culture with regards to the interaction that existed between the Nigerians and the British. For instance, there was English being spoken in Nigeria as early as the 16th century. Here, the natives learnt English from the British who either chose to settle among them or pay them occasional visits. Military conquest of Nigeria by the British forces can be traced back to the 1800’s. During this time, there was some little resistance but the vast machine-gun armed British forces overcame this. These forces conquered any form of resistance that stood in their way with ease. By the first decade of 1800, the British had taken over the entire state of Nigeria. The region was home to over 200 ethnic groups and these were strategically divided into three distinctive regions. The regions housed different administrative units and each of these differed from the other with regards to the economic, social, and cultural evolution taking place therein. The three regions that were formed out of the strategic division by the British were Western, Eastern, and Northern Regions. In their division of Nigeria, the British took minimum – if any – consideration of the diversification that existed in the communities shaping up Nigeria. They went on to divide the country among lines that would see entire nation revolutionized. There were important and historic factions of society that went under as the result of the division that took place in the Falade ? course of colonization by the British. The natives lost their sense of identity as well as ethnic attachments as a result of the division that took place in the course of the colonization. It is important to note that the boundaries that exist in modern day Nigeria were not as an African creation, but a British vision. In 1903, the name Nigeria was birthed by the Wife of one of the Commissioners that had been assigned authority over Nigeria. The wife of the British Commissioner saw it fit to name the region Nigeria since it was home to the Niger River. The presence of the Niger River in the northern region of the country was the main motivation behind the naming of the country. When the British took over Nigeria, they had one thing in mind; to satisfy their needs. A closer analysis on the activities shaping up the colonization of Nigeria brings out detailed information with regards to the economic and political setting of the country during colonization. Here, the British administration established a political and economic setting through which the country was aligned to the vision of the British government. There was an economic diversification instituted as the colonization kicked in. The Nigerians traded their cheap raw materials for British goods. Here, the natives would be found trading goods such as rubber, palm oil, tropical wood, and cotton for the metal tools, guns, and clothes from the British. Long before they knew it, the natives had been stripped of their goods through the economic traditions established by the British. Nigerians were left at the mercy of their British trading counterparts. The British had established an unbalanced trade practice that was designed to ensure that the British got enriched at the expense of the Nigerians. Politically, there were major oppressions that took place with regard to the rights and freedoms of the Nigerians. The British set up a system through which they exercised oppressive rule over the natives. Here, they ensured that a government system was in place through which the management of their affairs would not only Falade ? be made easy, but also favor their colonial undertakings. The British colonizers that ensured the Nigerians were constantly advising the British about the affairs taking place in their society set up a government system. With time, the natives developed a negative attitude towards the government system and the parliamentary system established therein. The study of colonialism on the African nations seems to take the same course in most – in not all – studies. Here, the main element under analysis is the influence of the colonial power over the colony. Although much is being done to ensure that there is a restoration of the various local sensibilities, there is still much to be achieved with regard to the deep and negative impacts of colonialism. The influence of colonialism is the main source of the social inequalities and economic discrepancies that define third world countries can be traced back to colonization. Colonialism is responsible for the various globalization, economic integration, and neocolonialism cultures. One of the most attractive factors with regard to colonization was the environment of the colonies. During the course of colonization – as presented in the scramble and partition for Africa the colonizers were out to look for land and forest resources. Here, fertile lands and vast forests were one of the main elements through which the various lands were prioritized with regard to colonization. When colonization was at its peak, the vast forest had been reduced to farming land through deforestation and the various highlands became settlements through which cash crop production took place. So important and productive was the cash crop business in the course of colonization that the British industrial revolution was because of cash crop production. The food security in the various nations – within both the colony and colonizer’s settings – was because of the production that took place within the course of colonization. The deforestation that took place in India was the main source of timber in the ship building activities Falade ? in Britain. In the same country, there was an extensive railway system, which was built by the timber produced from the deforestation. The establishment of the railways system benefitted different parties within the colonization setting. Here, the colonizers established and developed effective means through which they would transport their various resources and extend their colonization while the improving the infrastructure for the locals. Through this – improvement in infrastructure – the access to and transfer of natural resources became easier and more continent. Works Cited Arnold, D and R Guha. Nature, Culture and Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental history of South Asia. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995. Arnold, D. The Problem of Nature; Environment, Culture and European Expansion, New Perspectives on the Past. Blackwell Publishers Limited, 1996. Brett, E A. Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa; The Politics of Economic Change. Heinemann Educational Books Limited, 1973. Daszak, P, A A Cunningham and A D Hyatt. Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wildlife – Threats to Biodiversity and Human Health. Wildlife Ecology Review (2000). Sartre, Jean Paul. Colonialism and neo-colonialism. Oxon : Routledge books, 2001.

The Spirituality And Architecture Theology Religion Essay

The Spirituality And Architecture Theology Religion Essay Spirituality  is an ultimate or an alleged immaterial  reality. The essence of spirituality is the search to know our true selves, to discover the real nature of consciousness. In other words, it is a constant discovery of the incredible, our real self, and a quest of our true being, why we are, who we are and where we belong. This has been a part of the eternal quest of man from times immemorial. These questions have been answered differently by many but are subject to ones own belief interpretation and perception. Sri Aurobindo in Indian Spirituality and Life (1919)says Man does not arrive immediately at the highest inner elevation and if it were demanded of him at once, he would never arrive there. At first he needs lower supports and stages of ascent, he asks for some line of thought, dogma, worship, image, sign, and symbols, some indulgence and permission of mixed half natural motive on which he can stand while he builds up in him the temple of spirit.(Sri Aurobindo, Indian Spirituality and Life, 1919) Mans quest of truth, reality and peace has been unending. Overawed with the infinite nature, whatever he could not comprehend he attributed that to the glory of nature. Mans intellect cannot accept anything that is unknown, unseen and has no fixed shape or form. Thus to satisfy his intellectual curiosity man gave physical form to the divine being. Spirituality is our attempt to become aware of our spirit. Spiritual architecture refers to any building system that facilitates this awareness. It is, an act of highlighting or bringing forth the self, not by rejecting matter but by manifesting it in matter, at various levels and in multiple forms. E.V. Walter in Placeways, defines spiritual space as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ a specific environment of phenomena that are expected to support the imagination, nourish spiritual experience, and convey spiritual truth (Walter,E.V., Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment, 75). Spiritual spaces can be found in nature or they can be a constructed space. A spiritual space found in nature is a place designated by individuals or groups as such a place. It is a distinct space, a place whose character sets it apart from its surroundings. They are distinct from typical or commonly found places. The designation of a place as spiritual comes from the human need to establish a connection with inner truth. A place that is spiritual to one person or group of people may not be spiritual to others. Architecture of a space can invoke all the senses, help one concentrate ones positive energies to calm a disturbed mind and take a peaceful stable mind beyond the physical. It is an inevitable part of life. It attempts to reflect mans source and the reason of being in several varied ways. Architecture is more than mere physical shelter or symbolic artefacts. They are catalyst towards our dwelling, between our being and the world. Architecture, together with the other arts, has, since time immemorial, been one of the most powerful means to pursue and realize this quest and give it physical-symbolic expression: how to create an identity and a place for our being from within the vast, shapeless and infinite extent of time and space; how to affirm our presences and gain a foothold, in the universe. (Gunter Dittmar, Upon the Earth, Beneath the Sky: The Architecture of Being, Dwelling Building, 2001) Successful architectural expression is one, which is able to do both; provide an enriching experience and an unforgettable image. It becomes more important while expressing spirituality in material to provide for an experience of, both the form and the formless, one perceptible by the senses and other beyond senses. Since sacred spaces are separate from everyday places in a designated precinct, value is placed on the journey and arriving at the sacred place. The path and the ritual journey are part of the sacred experience. It is a universal goal of mankind to seek or to create spiritual spaces. What is a spiritual space, and what are the qualities which describe that space? What defines spirituality and the space it makes and how does this form relate to us today? RESEARCH QUESTION What are the attributes of spiritual spaces? 1.2 NEED FOR JUSTIFICATION The current crisis of environmental degradation is also a crisis of places. People are systematically building meaningless places. We must develop a way of understanding the built environment and the natural landscape. True renewal, will require a change in the way we structure experience for understanding both the natural land and the constructed world. Since, the spiritual dimension and moral obligation have been discarded by the modern. Materialism divorced from ethics has corrupted the society. Therefore, more and more people are turning to Spirituality, Yoga and Meditation. Religious people are searching for the lost grid of spirituality in religion. Thus, there is a growing need of buildings to cater this need of people. There are spatial qualities and architectural elements based on experiential background and emotional attachments. To identify and define these connections, one has to go beyond the basic observation of signs and symbols, and analyse the spatial qualities and architectural elements which stimulate senses. 1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY A brief study of design tools, which are capable of making the experience soul stirring. These include form, space, volume, geometry, scale and proportions, light and colour. Historical and symbolic aspects of spiritual spaces have already been discussed. (Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol. 2; Sir Banister Fletchers a History of Architecture, Sir Banister Fletcher,  Dan Cruickshank; Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Period), Percy Brown) Thus this study will be focused towards the very fundamental architectural criterion and spatial impression on individuals mind. The study does not discuss in detail many issues, like evolution, construction, etc. But focuses on the internal design aspects, concerning the designing of a spiritual space, which are known and acknowledged. Study should avoid commenting on the beliefs and rituals of various religions, but should debate towards the evolution and change of spatial qualities and form. 1.4 LIMITATION FOR THE RESEARCH Study of sacred spaces of all faiths is not possible within the limited time frame. A study of the built environment shall be undertaken which shall include only the spiritual aspect, the qualitative parameters and not the technical evaluation of the built form. Considering the time frame provided for the completion of the study, primary case studies taken are done from Delhi only. It would have been desirable to study how sacred can be woven into the everyday as well. 1.5 METHODOLOGY The study is intended to be broken into subheads that will make it easier to understand the topic that talks about spiritual dimensions in sacred spaces and architectural qualities influencing human behaviour. STAGE 1 IDENTIFYING NEED FOR THE STUDY Trying to find the objectives of study. Setting up the scope and limitations. STAGE 2 LITERATURE SURVEY Through the survey of all possible data related to the topic or on architecture and human behaviour. This stage of the research includes collecting data that is directly or indirectly related to spiritual aspect of architectural spaces. This has been done through the printed form or from the internet, articles and discussions of peoples relating to the study. Literature survey aims at sorting out case studies both inside and outside India and also at getting an review of what are the recent developments and events that are taking place in the field of spiritual architecture. STAGE 3 LITERATURE SURVEY 2 A study has been undertaken to understand the mental conditions of a man in different spaces and its relation with the creator. Through this the topic got defined and the question got framed. STAGE 4 INTERRELATING DIFFERENT SACRED STRUCTURES As our concern is on human being, the structures affecting human mind around the world should have similarities. Search for the overlapping of spatial qualities in sacred structures around the world. STAGE 5 FRAME WORK To make a framework of different issues and principles studied which can be applied on case studies. List of issues formulate questionnaire for the case studies and interviews. List of issues: Open and closed space Portal or entrance Path and surrounding landscape Destination point Form, geometry, proportion and scale Articulation and symbolism Light, colour and sound Touch, smell and taste STAGE 6 Fig 1.1 ISKCON Temple, New Delhi Fig 1.2 Cathedral Church of Redemption, New Delhi Fig 1.3 Jama Masjid, New DelhiCASE STUDIES ISKCON TEMPLE, NEW DELHI CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF REDEMPTION, NEW DELHI JAMA MASJID,NEW DELHI Case studies are selected to understand the sacredness and the spiritual consciousness through the built, the purpose behind it. Case studies will throw some light on the spatial qualities of spiritual spaces. Suitable case studies will be undertaken to examine the need of the topic and its negligence in present day scenario. STAGE 7 CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDY All the information collected so far was then analysed thoroughly. An analysis of experiencing the sacred buildings to out the design tools that an architect can employ to create the desired spiritual experience. STAGE 8 DESIGN IDEA FORMULATION After assimilation of all matter and analysis of material collected, conclusions are derived, as to, how an architect can use design tools to stimulate all the senses and make the experience of a spiritual space spiritual. CHAPTER 2: SPIRITUAL ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2.1 SPATIAL QUALITIES AND HUMAN MIND The sacred is never intentionally chosen, but in some way or the other revels itself. -Eliade (1963) The meaning of structured space, a meaning which we believe lies in its dynamic relationship to its human personality and to our mental health. Fig 2.1 The self- Hindu thought (Source: Prof. H.D. Chayya)The environment in which humans operate has an important influence on their wellbeing and performance. Our structured environment is so important and, influence direct or indirect, on the shaping of personality and the choice as well as the attainment of goals. Emotional design and tangible interaction are compelling forms of enhancing user engagement. The combination of these modes of interaction can create a new dimension of human experience when physical movement in space or the manipulation of objects triggers emotions within an individual. By seamlessly integrating expressive tangible interaction techniques with ambient intelligence, that is, by creating environments that are sensitive and responsive to human gestures, meaningful experiences can be constructed. Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter and Krik Bach found in their detailed studies of one urban situation, that physical spaces play a very large part in the formation of community relationships à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and even minor architectural feature, such as the position of staircase and mailboxes, had important effects on the social life of people. The architect who builds a house or who designs a site plan, who decides which direction the houses will face and how close together they will be, also is, to a great extent, deciding the pattern of social life among the people who will live in those houses.(Strengthening Weak Ties: Social Networks and Student Housing, Thesis, B. Design in Architecture, University of Florida, 2011) Geoffrey Scotts book The Architecture of Humanism, 1914, he said, The architect models in space as a sculptor in clay. He designs the space as a work of art; that is, he attempts through his means to excite a certain mood in those who enter it. The view has been elaborated by others, among them Bruno Zevi, Architecture as Space, 1957: the facade and walls of house. Church, or palace, no matter how beautiful they may be, is only the container, the boxà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦; the content is the internal space. As Geoffrey Scott suggests, Space itself is not obvious, cannot be visually perceived; one sees only objects in space; or the structural members that encloses the space. Space itself can only be sensed- that is, felt; its quality is apprehended by means of the senses, but its effect is upon the emotions, and cannot readily be rationalized, measured or depicted. One can only gauge and describe accurately enough the adequacy or structural soundness, its provision for warmth, ventilation, sanitation, light, and other physical factors. One can criticize its components in terms of proportion, texture, colour and other aesthetic considerations. Fig. 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4 (Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Fig. 2.5 Non-sign II-art installation by  Annie Hans  and  Daniel Mihalyo But beyond all of these, there is an overall effect exerted upon ones consciousness by architectural space which defies precise definition.(Scott, Geoffrey, The Architecture of Humanism, 1914) Architecture truly conceived, is nothing less than the conscious and careful determination of our whole structured environment and leaves an impression on individuals mind, which can be controlled. Like a stage setting that controls the movements of actors and defines where and under what circumstances they can meet, our habitat channels our movements and influence our contacts. If we think of buildings at all, it is usually when we are jolted by some outrage, such as a stalled elevator or a leaky roof, long columned corridor, a double height space. (Walter, E.V., 1988, Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment) Table 2.1 The concept of the spirit of a space (Source: Author)Some of the architectural integrant which affect human psychology are: Five senses Hearing Touch Sight Taste Smell The basic elements Space Air Fire Water Earth Instruments of perception (to acquire inward) Ear Skin Eyes Tongue Nose Work organs (to act outwards) Speech communication (exit) Hands work (finger) Feet mobility Anus discard Genitals procreate Control centre force Mind (flow of thoughts and emotions) Intellect (power of discrimination) The presiding force (PRANA or the life force) The cosmos consciousness or the supreme energy Architecture Silence Climate Light Plumbing Landscape transformation Acoustics Weather Colour Cooling Related technological fields Vibrations Texture surfaces Texture forms Repose odour Emotional Design Emotion is a fundamental aspect of what makes us human; it shapes our cognition, perception, memory, and learning and it colours our past, present, and future experiences. Emotional value is important in design for enhancing user experience as Donald Norman explains: Our attachment is really not to the thing, it is to the relationship, to the meanings and feelings the thing represents. Emotional design then, provides an aesthetic interaction that engages users on an emotional, meaningful, and psychological level. Whereas affective computing focuses on the system recognizing and adjusting to what it believes the user is feeling, emotional design focuses on the emotional experience. Physical and Tangible Interfaces Human movement is often spurred by intention and motivation within people. Tangible user interfaces allow users to interact with virtual information by sensing and manipulating physical environments through objects, surfaces, and spaces. Relation of architecture and human psychology is far interrelated. Appropriate use of various architectural components has the capacity of enlightening the atmosphere whereas inappropriate use does the opposite. The building forms, the functions incorporated in it, colours, negative and positive spaces in and around it may be the few points but architecture is directly attached with human psychology from conscious to subconscious level. 2.2 PLACEBO EFFECT: SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION For decades, scientists have tried to understand the mysterious power of what is called the placebo effect. Placebo studies prove how powerfully we are influenced not just emotionally but physiologically by how we perceive the world around us. Articulation and architectural conditions in homes can have powerful and long-lasting psychological impact. The placebo effect offers a clue that points to how we might create curative environments. The placebo effect as a therapy, the fact that believers in a wide variety of ancient faith systems also claim similar effects, as have modern scientists who study mind/body medicine. Fig 2.6 Illustration of the interrelationship of stress, belief and how they may impact on the placebo effect and the relaxation response. (Source: http://www.sciencedirect.com)In other words, it impacts an ancient part of our brain which we share with many other species. Endogenous opioids, which are naturally produced by the brain in small amounts and play a key role in the relief of pain and anxiety, have been implicated in placebo analgesia. CHAPTER 3: SACRED SPACE AND SPIRITUALITY 3.1 OPEN SPACES: AS SACRED SPACES Does spirituality needs sacred spaces and vice versa? Does spirituality really is incomplete without architecture? Is it not the quality of the inner life, open to a virtual dimension that transcends the sensible, that matters? Fig 3.1 Lodhi Garden, New Delhi (Source: Author)Open space has two different meanings that work together to create sacred places that are inclusive and aware of many elements that may be exclusive to any potential user of the space. An open space is open to the public, meaning anyone of any race, faith, culture, or belief is able to enter the space. The space is for the whole community of different people rather than just one particular group. Or, an open space is one that feels welcoming and non-threatening to those that spend time in it; it feels like home for the soul. The design of the space and the placement of features such as portals, paths, universal symbols that have meaning across all religions, nations and ethnic groups, lend to the openness of the space by inviting those outside of the space to enter it. The combination of a space being open on both a physical and spiritual level is what makes up Open Spaces, Sacred Places. 3.2 ATTRIBUTES OF A SPIRITUAL SPACE Architecture is the first pioneer on the highway toward the adequate realization of inner self. For this means it levels space for self-realization, informs his external environment, and builds a fit place for the aggregation of those assembled having similar faith, as a defence against the threatening of tempest, against rain, and savage animals. Besides the variety of buildings and design approaches in the effort to create a space where man can feel spirituality, there can be found some common design tools that help to create the soul stirring experience. The following discuss some of these parameters. The portal or threshold is the entryway into the sacred space, which helps to separate the space from the greater surrounding space and invites you to step inside. A portal can be created with a hardscape such as a gate or a portico, or with simple planting. Fig 3.2 Portal to Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com) Fig 3.4 Open space, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com) Fig 3.3 Pathway in a Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)The path invites exploration and discovery along the route. It meanders through spaces, fuels the imagination and entices one to see where it may lead. The destination point is an end point within a space that inexplicably draws visitors. It may be a resting place, such as a bench, or a beautiful natural feature, such as a gurgling fountain or rain curtain. It is a point within the sacred space where those who visit always end up. Sacred spaces may have more than one destination point. Space and Volume Fig. 3.5 Space defining elements, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Space, whether of the individual or the universal, possesses a unique quality of experiencing. It is hyper sensitive, besides being super potential. Sense of surround defines the space as separate and apart from the overall outdoor environment. Visitors who enter the space feel as though they are entering into a room. There are natural or man-made boundaries (or a combination of both) that delineate the space within the greater environment. These boundaries provide a subtle feeling of shelter, enabling people to feel safe and enjoy their time spent in the space. (Nicolas, W. Robert Leo A Daly, 2004, building Type Basics for Places of Worship) By generating a continuous flow of spaces, each act movement becomes an experience. Each component of architecture becomes important and provides for this linkage. It can be by repetition of elements, alteration in scale and proportion, staggering, light, texture, and colour and also by using perspective as a device to accentuate the drama. (Robinson,J., 1979, Religious Buildings) Fig. 3.6 Form and Space, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Form and Geometry Architectural form is the point of contact between mass and space Architectural Form required to fulfil its functional requirements for that is the reason for its being both physical and spiritual. (Saarinen, E., op.cit. pg 14)Every form conveys a meaning. It is important to understand how form can transmit a spiritual meaning. Certain shapes and forms are conventional associated with certain meanings. Scale and Proportion Fig. 3.7 Vastupurusa (Source: Charles Correa, Vistara; Architecture of India) Fig. 3.8 Vitruvius Man (Source: Leonardo Da vinci.stanford.edu)Scale refers to the size of something compared to reference standard or size of something else. Deciding the scale of a sacred space is a common design concern. Some blend into the fabric of the neighbouring community and landscape; others stands out as landmarks, easily recognized for their special purpose. Generally the sacred spaces take monumental scale to create an atmosphere of awe, mystery and magnificence. The scale of the interior spaces, the size and weight of doors, and the exposed structural columns and beams all serve to denote the special quality of the sacred space. Fig. 3.9 LeCorbusier modular Man (Source: Corbusier, The modulor)Proportion refers to the proper or harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole. While the designer usually has a range of choices when determining the proportions of things, some are given to us by the nature and the man himself. Human body proportions are used not merely as numbers with an inherent harmony, but as a system of measurements that could govern lengths, surfaces, and volumes. It can lend itself to an infinity of combination; it ensures unity with diversity; the miracle of numbers. Proportional buildings and scale link spiritual architecture to the mathematical structure of the cosmos. The building should relate well not only to the human scale but also the psyche. Light and Colour Fig. 3.12 Khajuraho Temple (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik) Fig. 3.11 Prayer at Church (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Light is regarded to be the most important component in definition of space or the manifestation of form in an architectural space; it not only defines the space but also gives meaning to it. In this study one looks at how light can create a place of worship; how to make a quiet, enclosed, isolated space, space full of activities, filled with vitality. Fig. 3.10 Khirki Masjid (Source: Jegmet Wangchuk) Colour is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment. We respond to bright colours, for instance red, with the emotional part of our brain. First, our muscles get tense, and then we lean towards the colour. Our respiration and heart rate goes up and the blood pressure starts rising. The opposite reactions occur when we see light colours such as blue. Our muscles relax, the heart and respiration rate drops and the blood pressure lowers. It also affects the visual weight of a form. Gradation of colour exist; from pale to brilliant; from cold to warm. Thus colour expression is also full of meaning. Texture is an important asset of colour. It is the visual and especially tactile quality given to a surface by shape and arrangement, and the proportions of the parts. Texture also determines to which the surfaces of a form reflect or absorb incident light. It gives an expression to the surface, thereby contributing to the overall impression. Color Colors Characteristics Colors Actions Red Stimulating, exciting, provocative, dynamic Increased enthusiasm, interest, and energy Pink Happy, sweet, spirited, romantic, youthful Calm and relaxing feelings Brown Wholesome, rich, durable, rustic, sheltering A connection with the natural earth and the stability this brings Orange Friendly, vital, tangy, energizing, inviting Increases creativity and gives relief from things becoming too serious Blue Dependable, cool, serene, constant, quiet Broadens your perspective in learning new information Green Refreshing, healing, fresh, soothing, nature Gives freedom to pursue new ideas Purple Sensual, elegant, mysterious, regal, spiritual Calms over activity or energizes from depression Black Strong, classic, elegant, powerful, mysterious Opens the door to mystery and prepares for the unknown Yellow Warming, sunny, cheerful, luminous, enlightening Gives clarity for decision making and sharper memory and concentration skills white Pure, bright, innocent, lightweight, pristine Starts a fresh beginning Fig. 3.13 Colours in Culture (Source: www.informationisbeautiful.net) Table. 3.1 Concept of Colours (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Symbolism Symbolism We can identify iconography depicted in architecture of these buildings as the signs and symbols and the inspirations taken directly from some other structure or theories and thoughts spread across the world. A symbol is the juxtaposition that is, a co-optation of visible forms brought forth to demonstrate some invisible matter. One needs to identify with ones religion that is where symbols play an important role.( JosePereira, 2004, The Sacred Architecture of Islam) Table. 3.2 Iconography in major religions (Source: JosePereira, The Sacred Architecture of Islam, 2004)Sacred symbolism is considered to be present in every major religious building, around the world. Iconography of sacred geography in three major religions of the world: TEMPLE MOSQUE CHURCH MOUNTAIN Shikhara Minaret Lofty towers STONE Idol One that in Kabba Altar TREE Present in courtyard Cross WATER Sarovar Ritual ablutions in courtyard Place of Baptism But is it signs and symbolism only which draw an impact on our behaviour. When we get in to some space, is the aesthetical and visual perception only gets conceived in our mind. Fig. 3.15 Temple Bells (Source: Author) Fig. 3.14 Prayer at church (Source: http://www.mlive.com) Fig. 3.16 Reciting Quran in Mardrsa (Source: http://www.mlive.com)SOUND The reverberant sound quality created by the proportions and the materials of sacred spaces set them apart from the ordinary. Sacred music, singing, chanting, the ringing of temple and church bells and intoning of prayers characterize specific rituals. The change in sound quality from the cacophony of the street to the harmony resonant silence signifies entry into a sacred space. TOUCH The experience of touch identifies a sacred space; the weight of the door handle, the textures of materials on walls and seating, and the hardness of stone underfoot. A change in temperature, such as the transition from the blazing heat of a busy city street into the cool and solitude of an interior can also denote a sacred space. Most of the textures are touched by vision, iconography, formed an integral part of a temple and a church architecture to convey the complete narrative. Though the following two are not translated into architectural terms, but they form an indispensable part of a complete spiritual experience. SMELL Fig. 3.20 Garlands for devotees (Source: Author) Fig. 3.18 IItr, scented oil Fig. 3.19 Votive Candles (Source: Author) Fig. 3.17 Agarbatti (Source: http://www.mlive.com)Incense is used extensively in the Roman Catholic and Buddhist traditions as a symbol of prayers going up to the deity. The smell of agarbatti and the flowers offered to deity are indispensable parts of the rituals for Hindu as well as many other faiths. The incense sticks are used even in meditation centers as the intoxicating smell stimulates your senses to the positive and calms you down. TASTE Fig. 3.23 Christmas cake (Source: www.google.com) Fig. 3.22 Korma (Source: Author) Fig. 3.21 Laddo (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik)Though this sensory experience is missing in many of the architecture, it still is an integral part of many religious experiences. All the Hindu temples have Prasad and Chanramrit (sweet water) as an indispensable part of the worshipping ritual. Some believe that this custom of sharing sweets is a memorial of the sweetness of the deities. Christians offer holy water in a similar manner. The prasad is obligatory in the Gurudwara too. 3.3 SPIRITUAL DIMENSION IN EXISTING BUILDING TYPOLOGY 3.3.1 THE HINDU TEMPLE The Hindu temple is essentially the House Of God. It is not a place for congregational worship. Though congregation for religious ceremonies do take place, but the worshippers communication with the divine is his own personal experience. The worshipper goes individually to the house of God and invokes his blessings. Stella Kramisch, in her book, The Hindu Temple says, the intellect of the age, absorbed largely in divine contemplation, is reflected in the temple idol

Essay --

During Thomas Jefferson’s presidency, he completed a series of transactions that made America what it is today. The most famous of these transactions was the Louisiana Purchase. He bought a lengthy stretch of land spanning from the obvious (Louisiana) to Montana. This land was bought for approx. 15 million. This translates to about 234 million dollars in today’s money (about 42 cents per acre).1 In order to explore this newfound territory, Thomas Jefferson sent two pals off into the wilderness, along with 31 other men. These two men were Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Meriwether Lewis was born in 1774 at his family’s estate in Virginia. When Lewis was five, his father died of pneumonia and his mother shortly remarried with a retired army officer. When Meriwether was 13, he returned to Virginia and began his schooling. In 1794, Lewis signed up for the army, where he was sent to quench the Whisky Rebellion along with 13000 other Virginians. One of these men was William Clark. The following year, Lewis joined the army of General ‘Mad’ Anthony Wayne. He was quickly transferred to the Chosen Rifle Company, which was led than none other than William Clark. The two quickly became friends but not long after being transferred, General Clark had to resign do to health problems. The following February, he was invited by his friend and president, Thomas Jefferson to serve as his personal secretary. The President proposed his plan to explore the United State’s new territory, and Lewis quickly volunteered to go. In 1803, congress app roved and Meriwether began to get ready. He sent a letter to his old friend, William Clark, asking him if he wanted to go with him. He agreed and the two left with 31 other men in the spring of 1804. Willi... ...e, unlike his best friend Meriwether. Sacagawea settled down with her French husband and six years after returning from their journey, gave birth to a daughter. No one knows if this daughter lived. In 1812, William Clark legally adopted both of Sacagawea’s Children. In the 20th century, a theory developed that Sacagawea instead lived to the age of 100 and was buried on the Wind River Indian Reservation. After close speculation, this theory was sent to rest by most historians, but you can believe what you like. William Clark, Meriwether Lewis, and Sacagawea remained friends long after their journey, and it is somewhat obvious due to the many respectful comments and other notes that involved the opinions and their friends that these people influenced each other greatly. These 35 people that returned to Virginia can be considered some of America’s greatest explorers.

Manila, Philippines

Manila, Philippines – Fair-skinned and well-groomed Bern Josep Persia may be the new face of the gay-speaking community, being the self-proclaimed bekimon president in the country. A photographer and a tech support representative, Persia plays different roles (from a call center agent to a newscaster) in a series of videos about bekimons, defined as people who are â€Å"hard-core users† of gay language — whether they are homosexuals or not. Most of the terms that bekimons commonly use are alterations of basic Filipino and English words such as workibells (work), kalurkey (kaloka or crazy), teh (ate or sister), anekwaboom (ano or what) and heller (hello). Others are totally unique — from the popular jowa (spouse or boyfriend/girlfriend) to names of showbiz figures such as Carmi Martin (a term used to refer to karma). The term bekimon (beki is a colloquial word for â€Å"gay†) took off from the growing popularity of the jejemon subculture, which refers to those who deliberately exaggerate ordinary words by adding or subtracting letters, or by using a mixture of upper-case and lower-case letters, in written communication. On Monday, jejemon was chosen as Salita ng Taon (Word of the Year) in the Sawikaan 2010, an academic conference organized by the Filipinas Institute of Translation Inc. Bekimons may not be as talked-about as jejemons yet, but it can't be denied that the new term is starting to create a buzz in the online community. The Bekimon Facebook page, for one, is slowly gaining fans at more than 2,500, with comments flooding the site each day. On top of these are a number of news articles as well as several discussions about the new subculture in social networks, blogs and online fora. Persia's YouTube page, which is home to over 40 bekimon videos, is said to be the 85th most viewed channel under the Comedians category last month. The future of bekimons Gay lingo has been prevalent throughout the Philippines, and was initially used by the homosexual community as a tool to communicate with each other. Jovy Peregrino, director of the University of the Philippines – Diliman Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, reportedly expressed support to the growth of the bekimon language. Peregrino stressed, however, that learning about formal languages such as Filipino and English should not be sacrificed. But the question is, will the bekimon subculture last just like the jejemons, or is it merely a fad? For Persia, it doesn't really matter. In the bekimon Facebook page, he stressed that he didn't coin the term or upload videos of himself just to be the talk of the town. Rather, he said he's doing this to â€Å"make sad people happy, relieve stress and ease the homesickness of Filipinos living abroad,† particularly the gay-speaking community. â€Å"Walang mali sa pagiging masaya (There's nothing wrong with being happy),† Persia said. One of his supporters, meanwhile, expressed confidence that the bekimon subculture will never die, saying, â€Å"Everybody has a bekimon side. â€Å"

The Wise Choice Process

What is your ideal future outcome? ) My Ideal future outcome is to get my nursing bachelor degree by 2016, dive right Into my career right after I graduate, and while work as a RAN pursue my masters degree and become a Nurse Anesthetist I want to have a stable part-time job that works with my schedule, and supports me throughout my college years so that I can focus on school and not have to worry about my financial stability. Ideally, I want to control all aspects of my life, and right now I feel as though I don't have a complete grasp on what to do to better my life 3.What are my possible choices? (Create a long list of specific choices that might create your preferred outcome. Cut back on school, and spend more time on finding a Job. Try harder to find a job Find a Job, stay in school, and alleviate my stress Meditate and find ways to control my stress levels even if I don't have a job. Realize that things will get better eventually if I Just apply myself. Keep doing what I'm doing 4. What's the likely outcome of each possible choice? (If you can't predict the likely outcome of an option, stop and gather more Information.If I cut back on school, and spend more time on finding a job, it'll take me longer to finish school. It wouldn't hurt to try harder to find a Job. Finding a Job, staying in school, and getting rid of my stress would be perfect. Meditate and find ways to control my stress is what I should be doing so that I can focus on school. Realize that things will get better Is relying on time to fix your problems, In a sense. And I don't want to wait. I want It to happen now. I am not going to keep doing what I'm doing because it is not working for me. 5. Which choice(s) will I commit to doing?Pick from your list of choices in step 3. ) I will commit to looking harder for a Job I will commit to finding a Job, staying in school, and getting rid of my stress. I will commit to Meditating and finding ways to control my stress 6. When and how will I evaluate my plan? (Identify specifically the date and criteria by which you will determine the success of your plan. ) I will start making changes In my life today March 13,2012. I want things to change now. So I need to act now. If I procrastinate on changing, it'll only take those changes longer to happen.I'm tired of feeling like I have no control over my life, and Its time for me to get back that control. If I ever feel discouraged or frustrated, I will simply refer back to this Journal to encourage me to get back on track the Wise Choice Process I learned that ever problem has a solution, and its up to me to make the right choice. There are many choices I can make, but I have to weigh them and see which one is the best fit for me. Earlier in this Journal I mentioned feeling like I had no control over what was happening in my life, and learning this sis choice process inspires me to change and make what I want to happen, happen now.It feels like thoughts have been overflowing my mind. I now know that a good choice today, will lead to a better tomorrow, I have the power to choose! ‘ relearned that only we can change what goes on in our life, and I am starting my change today. It is my programming that has created my choices in the past. It is the choices that I make today that are creating the programs of my future. I need to † Listen to the quietest whispers of your mind. They are telling you the choices that will help you the most†

How water uptake of a plant is affected by the number of leaves Essays

How water uptake of a plant is affected by the number of leaves Essays How water uptake of a plant is affected by the number of leaves Essay How water uptake of a plant is affected by the number of leaves Essay I will investigate how the water uptake of a plant is affected by the number of leaves using a potometer. To make it a fair test I will ensure that all factors remain constant except for the one that is manipulated. Same: Piece of plant, air pressure, light intensity/wavelength, wind speed and temperature, all done in the same lesson. Different: Leaf area/stomatal density. This is the easiest and most independent variable. For accuracy I will use Vaseline to seal the cuts where I have cut off leaves to stop water from escaping and complete the experiment in one lesson so other factors do not change too much e.g. temperature etc. Safety * Laurel is poisonous so hands should be washed thoroughly afterwards. * Glass is breakable. It should be pulled from the holder, not levered. * Glass should be put on the desk somewhere where it cant roll off. * Secateurs are sharp so care should be taken not to cut fingers. Equipment I will use a potometer. This will be connected to a plant at the top and a beaker of water at the bottom. The removal of the leaves will be done with secateurs and cut will be sealed with Vaseline. N.B. I am measuring the uptake of water not actual transpiration (water loss) because it is much easier. Measuring water loss is very difficult and requires specialist equipment. Water is lost through stomata on the underside of the leaves. Diagram of Equipment Factors that affect transpiration: There are many factors that I can change: * Temperature * Relative humidity * Light intensity * Light wavelength * Leaf area/ stomatal density* * Air pressure * Wind speed *This is the one we will change because it is the easiest most independent variable and there is a big enough change to measure as leaves are cut off. Hypothesis-leaf area affects transpiration. Predictions- 1. The plant will take up most H2O with all the leaves on. 2. When the plant has half the leaves it started with it will take up half the H2O. 3. Even with all the leaves off there will still be 10% water loss (from research*). RESEARCH: Quote from Green, Stout and Taylor biology book: Stomata: by evaporation of water from cells and diffusion of the water vapour through stomata, the pores found in the epidermis of leaves and green stems (about 90 %*). *90% of water is lost through the leaves (through stomata (pores on the underside of the leaves)). The other 10% is through lenticels. The rest of the plant (not the leaves) is not 100% waterproof. This justifies my prediction. As leaves are taken off there will be fewer stomata for water to escape through so I would expect there to be less water loss and therefore less water take-up. So leaf area is a good choice because of the stomata. Through preliminary work (below) I found there to be 75 stomata per mm2. This is a large area for water to escape through so cutting leaves off should have a large effect on the readings. I measured this by painting nail varnish on the leaves taking it off and counting the stomata under a microscope. This is described in greater detail in the preliminary work below. Accuracy * I will take a plant with enough leaves on so I can get 6 -10 different readings i.e. six leaves or sets of leaves removed. * I will take the readings for each number of leaves 5 -10 times and take a mean from the readings which will increase reliability and accuracy. * When taking readings I will wait for three consecutive readings that are similar/the same i.e. +/- 1mm from each other. * The readings will be taken at eye-level with the meniscus to ensure accuracy by reducing parallax error. * I will do one minute trials i.e. measure how far the meniscus travels in one minute. * The equipment is reliable to +/- 1mm. PRELIMINARY WORK Stomatal Densities A thin layer of clear nail varnish (about 1 cm2 area) is painted on the upper and lower surfaces of a leaf. This leaf is left to dry. Using a pair of fine forceps the film of varnish is peeled off. This is placed onto a drop of water on a clean slide, covered with a cover slip and examined under a microscope on high power. The number of stomata that can be seen is counted. Results Upper surface= 0 stomata Lower surface= 15 stomata You can then work out the number of stomata in 1mm2. The actual diameter of the field of view can be read from the foot of the microscope-0.5mm, so the radius is 0.25mm. From this you can calculate the area you are looking at (?r2). (1/the area of your field of view x number of stomata) Radius of microscope ?x0.252=0.196 area of microscope 0.196 goes into 1mm 5 times 155=75 stomata per 1mm2 This is a large area for water to be lost through, so I would expect that cutting leaves off will have a dramatic effect on water uptake as the leaf area will be greatly affected. GCSE BIOLOGY COURSEWORK: Obtaining Safety I took into consideration many safety points when obtaining the evidence: * The glassware can be broken easily glass should be pulled from the holder not levered. * Laurel is poisonous hands should be washed after handling it. * Secateurs are sharp you should be careful not to cut yourself, especially when cutting the plant underwater. I also made sure I took accurate readings by: * Labelling plastic bags before leaves were put in so they did not get mixed up. * Squeezed the air out of the bags to stop the leaves changing shape. * Looking from the level of the meniscus to reduce parallax error readings were taken from the top of the meniscus. * I also waited for three consecutive near-identical readings (+/- 1mm) before recording them to increase accuracy. GCSE BIOLOGY COURSEWORK: Analysis The evidence shows that the fewer leaves the plant has, the less water it takes up. The graph shows strong negative correlation. The less leaf area left, the less water taken up. Conclusion Water is lost through the stomata on the underside of the leaves. There are about 75 stomata per mm2. Quote from Green, Stout and Taylor biology book: Stomata: by evaporation of water from cells and diffusion of the water vapour through stomata, the pores found in the epidermis of leaves and green stems (about 90 %*). *90% of water is lost through the leaves. The other 10% is through lenticels. The rest of the plant (not the leaves) is not 100% waterproof. 60072(total leaf area)/7(number of leaves=8581.714283. So the average leaf area is about 8581.7mm2. The average number of stomata per leaf was 643628.5714. This is a large area for water to be lost through. The results show us that when we remove leaves, less water is lost. This is because there is less stomata for water to be lost through. The top-side of the leaf has no stomata. Diagram of how water is lost through stomata Contours of equal concentration of water molecules; steeper potential gradient=closer contours and faster rate of diffusion. The fastest rate is at the edge of the pores. Water loss and gas exchange is more rapid through a large number of small holes than a small number of large holes with the same total area (edge effect). Water is lost very rapidly through these holes. By cutting leaves off, so there are fewer of these holes, it is bound to have a dramatic effect on the water uptake because such a large amount of water is lost through them. My results confirmed this. The graph shows strong negative correlation. The rate of water loss when leaves are removed changes evenly. I predicted: 1. Plant will take up most H2O with all leaves on. 2. When the plant has half the leaves it started with it will take up half the H2O. 3. Even with all leaves off, 10% of water will be lost /taken up (GST). The graph shows us that my first prediction was correct. The graph slopes downwards showing that as leaves were removed the water uptake was less. The graph also shows that my second prediction was correct. It did roughly have half the water loss/take-up when there were half the leaves. 6 leaves on plant = 38mm travelled by meniscus in one minute 3 leaves on plant = 18mm travelled by meniscus in one minute 38-18=2.1 This is close to 2 which would have been the result if everything was perfect. However, my third prediction did not turn out to be true. There was less than 1mm3 of water taken up with no leaves. However, this could not have worked properly (explained in more detail in evaluation). GCSE BIOLOGY COURSEWORK: Evaluation The procedure was reliable once set up. The setting up was the most difficult part. The evidence was accurate. The error bars on the graph were quite close to each other. Sometimes each reading was identical each time for the number of leaves. As long as the calculations were done correctly the final data is accurate. One problem though was air bubbles which would often become trapped by the cut part of the plants stalk. This left less area for water to be taken up so the accuracy would be affected if the bubbles were not removed. The procedure was quite good. It produced consistent results when set up properly. However, it could be improved. One problem was that there were just too many variables, e.g. air pressure, light intensity, wind speed etc. A better experiment would be one that did not have so many variables. Also, the plant is living and there would be a certain amount of shock to it when it was cut apart. A better experiment would be one where it is not cut. The experiment also needed time to get going and the plant needed time to settle down and produce consistent readings. Things that I would change are monitoring air pressure and choosing a time to do the experiment when this is constant. I would do it in a darkened room using an artificial light source which could be monitored. Temperature would also be kept constant and doors and windows would be shut to prevent air turbulence. I would cover the leaves with cling film rather than cut them off. This would reduce stress to the plant and improve t he accuracy of the readings. The evidence was reliable. The error bars were close to each other meaning the readings were (sometimes identical). The reliability though could be affected by the airlocks, other uncontrolled variables and water on the leaves. Care had to be taken to wipe off any water on the leaves. The Vaseline also had to be secure on the tips so no water could escape. You also had to make sure that your eyes were at the level of the meniscus to make accurate readings. Overall, the conclusion is sufficiently supported by the evidence. Mini-plan for second experiment If I did an experiment like this again I would do it a different way. I would measure the water loss by measuring the mass of the plant and water being taken up. Because 1g of water=1cm3 it would be easy to measure the water uptake, and therefore loss. I would take six consistent readings from the balance. This would have greater accuracy than the three readings I took in the previous experiment. Diagram of Apparatus The variables will be the same as in the last experiment but I would try to keep more of them controlled. Air pressure would be monitored. I would do the experiment in a dark room using artificial light as a light source. This would enable me to monitor the light that gets to the plant. This would improve the accuracy. The humidity could also be kept constant in the room as could temperature. Air turbulence would be kept to a minimum by closing all windows and doors and making sure that no one enters while I am doing the experiment. Another problem which I will address from the first experiment is that cutting off the leaves gave the plant shock affecting the readings. To combat this I would cover the leaves with cling film instead of cutting them off. This would cause no distress to the plant so the readings will be more accurate. The plant and apparatus would be weighed first, then I would see how the mass changes as water is sucked from the beaker. The balance would be accurate enough to detect the small weight change. I would wait for the plant to settle down and for the water uptake to become constant. I would perhaps measure the weight change in one minute and repeat six times to increase accuracy. Before I cover the leaves with cling film I will weigh the cling film first. This will stop the weight of the cling film from affecting the readings. This method would be more accurate than the last because the balance is more accurate than judging from a scale as in the last experiment. There would be no errors such as parallax with this experiment and no stress to the plant because of leaves being cut off, making this experiment much more reliable than the original.

Free Essays on Populism

Populism is a movement begun in the mid-1890s by farmers and other rural residents at the time. It quickly gained strength and has undergone many changes since then. It has not only changed in its views, but also in the political parties who utilize it not as an ideology but rather as a mode of persuasion. Populism is defined in the book as a language whose speakers see the people as one and not as a people bound by class restrictions, who see the elite politicians who oppose them as self-serving, and who wish to bring these "average people" together to fight against the overbearing powers of the political elite. Populist speakers voiced their discontent with elites who ignored, corrupted, or betrayed the ideal of American democracy, which consisted of rule by the common people. After the farmers created what we know as populism in the mid-1890s, there was a parting of the ways. In the early twentieth century, farmers' enthusiasm waned but two other groups' did not. These groups cons isted of the wage earners and the evangelic churchgoers. They argued that unions were now the best representation of the "average man". At the same time, middle-class Protestants were mounting campaigns as well. This was the first transition of the populist movement. . The second transition came in the late 1940s when populism began a migration from Left to Right. Conservative groups and politicians altered the speeches once given by reformers and radicals. Many reasons are given as to why this transition took place. Some of these included: the onset of the Cold War, the fact that most white Americans came to see themselves as middle-class consumers and taxpayers, and the growth of evangelical churches whose political stance was as conservative as their theology. Gradually and unevenly, a conservative populism emerged that promised to defend devout, middle-class communities against the governing elite. Populism is, in my opinion, a necessary component of d... Free Essays on Populism Free Essays on Populism During the late 19th century, the Populist Party began to materialize. In earlier years, economic depression in the western and southern portions of America had devastated many farm families. After bad seasons caused by drought many of these farmers began to fall heavily into debt. Frustrated as well as upset, their anger was further fed by discontent with railroads, manufacturers, lenders, and many others. In the early 1890s, alliances of farmers pulled together to form the People’s party. The first prominent populist in government was William Peffer. In 1890, this Kansan became the first populist senator. Continually growing, the People’s Party was soon established as a national party through a merger of the Farmers’ Alliance and the Knights Of Labor. Meeting in Omaha, the Populists took on a policy demanding free silver, graduated income tax, and government ownership of the telephone, telegraph, and railroads. Soon after, this third party nominated James Weaver for presidency in the election of 1892. Winning over a million popular votes and 22 electoral votes, this candidate became one of the few gain so many votes for a third party. Although they did not pull a victory, the Populist Party managed to gain much publicity. In the eastern, more urban portions of America, populism was not as â€Å"poplar†. The party’s main support came from six midwestern and western states. The south also refused to join this new party. A main reason was because more than a million members were black. Because of support from only a few states, the Populist Party began to lose it original spark. By 1896 the party was beginning to fall apart. Two main factions, â€Å"mid-roaders† and fusionists developed. Fusionists pushed for fusing with democrats in favor of free silver policies. Mid-roaders did not take firm enough stands to merge into other parties. Instead they kept politics that were in between those of the two larger parties. In an att... Free Essays on Populism Populism is a movement begun in the mid-1890s by farmers and other rural residents at the time. It quickly gained strength and has undergone many changes since then. It has not only changed in its views, but also in the political parties who utilize it not as an ideology but rather as a mode of persuasion. Populism is defined in the book as a language whose speakers see the people as one and not as a people bound by class restrictions, who see the elite politicians who oppose them as self-serving, and who wish to bring these "average people" together to fight against the overbearing powers of the political elite. Populist speakers voiced their discontent with elites who ignored, corrupted, or betrayed the ideal of American democracy, which consisted of rule by the common people. After the farmers created what we know as populism in the mid-1890s, there was a parting of the ways. In the early twentieth century, farmers' enthusiasm waned but two other groups' did not. These groups cons isted of the wage earners and the evangelic churchgoers. They argued that unions were now the best representation of the "average man". At the same time, middle-class Protestants were mounting campaigns as well. This was the first transition of the populist movement. . The second transition came in the late 1940s when populism began a migration from Left to Right. Conservative groups and politicians altered the speeches once given by reformers and radicals. Many reasons are given as to why this transition took place. Some of these included: the onset of the Cold War, the fact that most white Americans came to see themselves as middle-class consumers and taxpayers, and the growth of evangelical churches whose political stance was as conservative as their theology. Gradually and unevenly, a conservative populism emerged that promised to defend devout, middle-class communities against the governing elite. Populism is, in my opinion, a necessary component of d...

The Reconstruction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Reconstruction - Essay Example There were many challenges in the period trying to safeguard rights for African Americans leading to passage of various Acts and constitutional Amendments to guide the process. However, the aim of this paper is to compare the presidential and congressional Reconstruction and to develop a 3-point plan for Reconstruction which would have been more successful than the other plans. The main difference between presidential and congress plans was that the presidential plans were very lenient to the confederates contrary to what Radical Republicans expected. The Congressional Acts and Amendments were very stringent aimed at punishing the rebel states and especially the people in high ranks during the war. The 10% plan by Lincoln entailed pardoning those who swore allegiance to the union as well as the US constitution (Franklin 16). New governments were to be formed using new constitution and abolishment of slavery was a necessity for readmission to the union. Just like Lincoln, Johnson†™s plan was even more lenient. It involved pardoning those who took loyalty oaths except high ranking confederate political and military leaders (Ferrell 27). Though Republican and a Southerner by birth, Johnson loathed the wealthy planters as he believed they are the ones who led the secession of south. Those with property worth more than $ 20,000 were thus not allowed to take loyalty oaths and this meant they couldn’t hold public offices or vote. However, he did not address the plight of Freedmen giving room for southerners to establish Black Codes to limit black rights. Those states which created new governments were readmitted to the union on condition that they abolished slavery. The congressional plan was very radical. Republicans wanted to confiscate land of rebels and divide it among the Freedmen and the Freedmen bureau was entrusted with that task. The congress also refused to accept those elected from former confederate states in the congress especially former hig h ranking officers. The congress unlike Johnson was bent on securing rights and citizenship for former slaves thus passed the Civil Rights Act in 1866 that gave blacks equality under the law and due process of law. It also extended the life of Freedmen’s Bureau and overturned the Black Codes. To further black rights, the congress entrenched these rights in the constitution by passing the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the constitution. Fourteenth Amendment gave citizenship to freedmen, equal protection of law and due process of law. It was passed in 1868 and stated â€Å"all persons born or naturalized in the U.S and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of U.S and of state wherein they reside† (Foner 251). The Fifteenth Amendment of 1870 gave blacks suffrage and stated â€Å"the right of citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the US or by any state on account race, color, or previous condition of servitude† (Ferrell 41). However , it did not guarantee voting as states could still deny blacks right to vote based on other criteria such as poll tax. Besides, gangs like Ku Klux Klan could not allow to them to vote thus unleashed terror on them. States had to ratify both amendments to be readmitted to the union. Besides the two amendments, the congress also devised Reconstruction Acts in 1867 to act as its plan for Reconstruction. Under these four acts, the remaining ten former confederate states which had not ratified the fourteenth Amendment

Depend on the information that will given which 1) a narrative memoir Essay

Depend on the information that will given which 1) a narrative memoir of a vacation, journey, or experience. Use first person I and either chronological order or flashback of events - Essay Example I remember meeting an old school friend, on the first day of school in August 2004, who also happened to join the same high school. We had made a few acquaintances by then. Introducing those across gave us the opportunity to get together after classes and have a chat. I was happy enough with a trusty bunch of friends, having a sport to put my passions into was just an add on. Before I knew it, I found myself always playing football, the most popular high school sport (Mueller et. al p. 57), in the free time. I was quite popular as a goalkeeper among my friends because of my extreme saves. That was all I liked – being popular, but only among my friends, rather than in the clichà © sense of being popular, for extreme things I could do with confidence. There was nothing I could remember better than flashbacks of playing football in the previous year. Starting the final year we got a match set up with a seventh grade team. This seemed quite boring because I was of the opinion that this - rather unmatched - match was set up because there was no other team available. Little did I know from my previous year’s football passion that I and my friends were not the only ones who loved the game - there were others, who took it much more seriously than our time killing passion approach. The match, that we expected to be very uneventful, soon proved to be a spectacular match. As I remembered saving goals day in and out with my friends, my tunnel vision world started spinning out of focus when I saw the seventh graders score goals after goals on me; passing the football with a single touch kick. As I thought of the scores I had dived to save all year back, I couldn’t say I didn’t enjoy being beaten by seventh graders. A me mory of being beaten is a lesson on the game I thought I had passion about, I learned there is always someone out there who takes your passions much more seriously than you. But what makes you unique is your own ability to learn

Title is Open Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Title is Open - Essay Example Much emphasis will however be given to his noteworthy accomplishments and their importance or influence in the current century. Gauss had a lot of influence in the field of mathematics. He was the first mathematician to prove the theorem of algebra, a concept that is used to solve many mathematical problems even today. Writing of the book by the name Disquisitines Arithmeticae is another great achievement of Gauss. Another significant achievement is the discovery of the Law of Quadratic Reciprocity. This is an incredibly fundamental concept in today’s world. It allows individuals to establish whether there can be a solution to quadratic equations. Gauss also made a lot of contributions to science. For instance, he made it easy to understand the concepts of the nature of electricity and magnetism (West, 2008). Algebra is widely utilized today. Companies use it to project annual budgets. It is also combined with statistics to predict companies’ annual turnover. Algebra is also used in learning institutions to prepare annual reports of students as well as in predicting usage of the different materials used in examinations. It is also used in the calculation of payable income tax, bank interest as well as annual table income. We also use algebra unconsciously in our day to day lives, for example, in comparing of various products with respect to quantities while doing shopping. These are just some of this century’s applications of algebra, a concept attributed to Gauss. The other achievement is the publication of the book; Disquisitines Arithmeticae, at the age of 24years. Although written long ago, it is considered as one of the most significant books in the mathematics field today. This book has made the understanding of various mathematical concepts easier. This is because Gauss brought together the isolated theorems and conjectures from works of other mathematicians thus filling the gaps that

Critical analysis of Integrated Water Resources Management Essay

Critical analysis of Integrated Water Resources Management - Essay Example This inconsistency therefore renders the solutions to water problems dependent on its availability and several other factors including the processes of management, competence and capacities of authorities tasked with the management, prevailing socio-political factors that inform the planning, development and management processes. Other factors include the suitability and implementation status of the prevailing legal frameworks; accessibility of financial resources, regional climatic, social and environmental situations; the extent and availability of exploitable technologies; national, regional and international awareness and attitudes; the levels of education and developmental conditions; governance issues including political meddling, corruption and accountability; and the availability of quality, effective and relevant research aimed at solving the water problems1. The importance of water as a resource can be adequately explained by the widespread interest it is to the general soc iety, and several public institutions that are linked to development issues at the state and local levels, the academic field, private sector and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). It is this widespread interest in water that makes its management to command a greater level of social and political attention although the levels may vary from one country or region to another and over time. Globalization has brought about a higher level of interrelation and complexity in the world, a situation that has led to a pervasive interest in issues that ensure good quality of life to the people. Water, though not the only issue takes center stage and in the recent past, there has been a substantial amount of evidence that the water problems faced by a country cannot be singlehandedly solved by the water experts and water ministries. The interconnectivity and the new level of interlink between water problems and other issues related to development demands that water problems, and management a nd development should be multi-faceted with the participation of all stakeholders including users, planners and policy-makers at all levels (INBO and GWP, 2012).2 The prevailing and upcoming predictable trends show that water problems will continuously get more complex and the interlinking with other development sectors such as agriculture, energy, manufacturing, transport and communication and social aspects of life such as education, environmental issues, and health will keep on increasing3. An issue that is of vital importance and creates significant challenge to members of the water profession is the formulation of ways of successfully addressing the current and future water problems at all stages including local, national and international levels. It is with this in mind that during the early 1980s, a number of members of the water profession came to the realization that the overall world water situation was not at a desirable level. Therefore it is imperative that when formula ting a solution, it is appreciated that the water problems are becoming more multi-dimensional, multi-sectoral and multi regional and could therefore only be solved through a multi-criterion decision making

Dra Rod DB 4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Dra Rod DB 4 - Assignment Example The elements of the play that enforce that Wilson’s play is about African-American life than the universal man include; Troy’s inability to participate in professional baseball as a young man, and the fact that he had to consult their boss Mr. Rand to become a truck driver (Fences 40). Troy Maxson sets up the direction of the play’s plot in such a way that the theme of fatherhood and responsibility are depicted throughout the play. Events such as unfaithfulness in his marriage create a struggle for him as his wife takes care of another woman’s child but ends her relations with Troy. The rivalry between Troy and Cory is revealed when the father denies him the chance to play baseball professionally hence making the son move out of the house (Fences 57-60). The comment that surprised me in the interview was that when African Americans go back to Africa they are treated as white tourists and in the dictionary the blacks are regarded as violators of laws. This is interesting because in one land they are discriminated and in another they are celebrated and regarded as visitors. I felt that the interviewer does not get what Wilson was saying at the end of the interview. This is because he wonders why Wilson defends the blacks all the time yet one of his parents is white. What Wilson says relates to my experience in the world as I have witnessed some African-Americans striving to look for jobs and those in employment earning low incomes. Wilson’s play created a realistic set of characters and situations effectively as it displayed what happens in most African-American families where one of the relatives could be in prison, parents struggling to get money to pay their bills and their children discriminated in society because of their races. I would particularly relate to the scene where Cory is denied by the father a chance to play professional

QFD (Quality Function Deployment) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

QFD (Quality Function Deployment) - Essay Example The Manufacturing Engineering  program provides a  unique and high quality  engineering education to prepare students for innovation, creativity, leadership and success. As a student in Manufacturing Engineering, one will learn  product design and innovation using cutting edge  3-D modeling tools and  computers,  control the high-tech machine tools including robotics that make the product, apply system theory, quality control and optimization  to manage the production and service system, and  compete in  the global environment. Industrial Requirements: A focus on Capital budgeting, deterministic investment analysis, probabilistic engineering economy, manufacturing cost models, utility theory, and computer applications to engineering economy. Industrial Requirements: Design of tooling for various manufacturing processes such as plastic injection, metal casting, stamping, forming, etc. Material properties, tolerances, cost, and tool interchangeability are covered. Industrial Requirements: To understand the modern concepts of using computers for manufacturing, including the theory of computer numerical control (CNC) and direct numerical control (DNC), CNC milling, and CNC tuning and computer-aided process design. Industrial Requirements: The emphasis of the course is on continuous quality improvement. To possess knowledge on process, capability analysis, philosophies of quality management, advanced statistical process control, quality costs, and automated quality control. Industrial Requirements: Ability to obtain and understand client requirements, and design a system with enough safety measures, component, or process related to industrial engineering to meet client requirements. Industrial Requirements: To understand the theoretical and practical aspects of the implications that the manufacturing process has on the design activities Issues such as rapid prototyping, tolerance, geometric modeling, capabilities of manufacturing processes,

Critical analysis of Integrated Water Resources Management Essay

Critical analysis of Integrated Water Resources Management - Essay Example This inconsistency therefore renders the solutions to water problems dependent on its availability and several other factors including the processes of management, competence and capacities of authorities tasked with the management, prevailing socio-political factors that inform the planning, development and management processes. Other factors include the suitability and implementation status of the prevailing legal frameworks; accessibility of financial resources, regional climatic, social and environmental situations; the extent and availability of exploitable technologies; national, regional and international awareness and attitudes; the levels of education and developmental conditions; governance issues including political meddling, corruption and accountability; and the availability of quality, effective and relevant research aimed at solving the water problems1. The importance of water as a resource can be adequately explained by the widespread interest it is to the general soc iety, and several public institutions that are linked to development issues at the state and local levels, the academic field, private sector and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). It is this widespread interest in water that makes its management to command a greater level of social and political attention although the levels may vary from one country or region to another and over time. Globalization has brought about a higher level of interrelation and complexity in the world, a situation that has led to a pervasive interest in issues that ensure good quality of life to the people. Water, though not the only issue takes center stage and in the recent past, there has been a substantial amount of evidence that the water problems faced by a country cannot be singlehandedly solved by the water experts and water ministries. The interconnectivity and the new level of interlink between water problems and other issues related to development demands that water problems, and management a nd development should be multi-faceted with the participation of all stakeholders including users, planners and policy-makers at all levels (INBO and GWP, 2012).2 The prevailing and upcoming predictable trends show that water problems will continuously get more complex and the interlinking with other development sectors such as agriculture, energy, manufacturing, transport and communication and social aspects of life such as education, environmental issues, and health will keep on increasing3. An issue that is of vital importance and creates significant challenge to members of the water profession is the formulation of ways of successfully addressing the current and future water problems at all stages including local, national and international levels. It is with this in mind that during the early 1980s, a number of members of the water profession came to the realization that the overall world water situation was not at a desirable level. Therefore it is imperative that when formula ting a solution, it is appreciated that the water problems are becoming more multi-dimensional, multi-sectoral and multi regional and could therefore only be solved through a multi-criterion decision making

QFD (Quality Function Deployment) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

QFD (Quality Function Deployment) - Essay Example The Manufacturing Engineering  program provides a  unique and high quality  engineering education to prepare students for innovation, creativity, leadership and success. As a student in Manufacturing Engineering, one will learn  product design and innovation using cutting edge  3-D modeling tools and  computers,  control the high-tech machine tools including robotics that make the product, apply system theory, quality control and optimization  to manage the production and service system, and  compete in  the global environment. Industrial Requirements: A focus on Capital budgeting, deterministic investment analysis, probabilistic engineering economy, manufacturing cost models, utility theory, and computer applications to engineering economy. Industrial Requirements: Design of tooling for various manufacturing processes such as plastic injection, metal casting, stamping, forming, etc. Material properties, tolerances, cost, and tool interchangeability are covered. Industrial Requirements: To understand the modern concepts of using computers for manufacturing, including the theory of computer numerical control (CNC) and direct numerical control (DNC), CNC milling, and CNC tuning and computer-aided process design. Industrial Requirements: The emphasis of the course is on continuous quality improvement. To possess knowledge on process, capability analysis, philosophies of quality management, advanced statistical process control, quality costs, and automated quality control. Industrial Requirements: Ability to obtain and understand client requirements, and design a system with enough safety measures, component, or process related to industrial engineering to meet client requirements. Industrial Requirements: To understand the theoretical and practical aspects of the implications that the manufacturing process has on the design activities Issues such as rapid prototyping, tolerance, geometric modeling, capabilities of manufacturing processes,

Do You Think Advertising to Children Should Be Banned Essay Example for Free

Do You Think Advertising to Children Should Be Banned Essay Do you think advertising to children should be banned? Why or why not? It is an established fact that companies might benefit from right understanding of the children’s role in purchasing process. It is considered to be the case adults are loyal to those brands which they are used to enjoy in their childhood. Moreover, getting elder, children may influence their parents quite deeply. Parents tend to work more and earn more to make up the deficiency of the time to spend with their children by making some purchases. Thus, effective advertising addressed to the young audience is in the interests of manufactures. Due to a possible harmful effect on children advertising is the subject of wide speculation: whether it should be banned or not. It is important to find out which groups of children run the risk. Many researches describing human socialization’s process divide it in several similar stages (Table 1). This division is very relative, but not devoid of sense. The summarized stage from birth to 2 years is not significant for consideration due to lack of ability to distinguish between commercials and other TV programs which appears in the second stage (2 – 6 years). In this stage, children don’t tend to deconstruct contradictions in their opinions and are not able to tend difference between their own belief and another point of view thrust on them. At the age of 6 – 8, children are aware of existence of opinions which may differ from their own beliefs, but do not exhibit the ability to actually think from another person’s perspective. At the fourth stage (9 – 10 years), children are able to accept another point of view, but are not able to consider situations as an impartial side. Children at this stage are able to understand advertising intent and recognize bias in advertising. However, they have no defenses against advertising. At the final stage (since 11 years), teenagers are able to set up hypotheses and take into account all possible options. They have already got some knowledge of advertising tactics and appeals. As evident from this analysis, the most defenseless element here is children aged by eight. However, they are allowed to make just a simple consumer choice and strictly limited financial resources. As for elder children, they have more substantial financial recourses and considerable freedom. Besides, they may influence parents’ choice in areas such as electronic devices etc. Some people argue for ban against advertising. Nevertheless, there are some refutations of necessity to ban it. For example, younger children rely in their choice most on in-store experience rather than information introduced by adds. As for teenagers, they tend to use alternative sources of information, parental advice or peers’ opinions. Most researchers believe that some people have not got the certain characteristics of the final stage even during adulthood. The question arises as to not just advertising to children, but advertising to everyone. In my opinion, the most reasonable way is to control (or even ban in certain cases) advertising of goods such as cigarettes, alcohol and non-nutritious foods.

Evaluation and the use of concept mapping

Evaluation and the use of concept mapping A concept is a thought, notion, or an abstract idea developed from a situation or particular instance experienced by the learner. Concept mapping consists of diagrams that represent an organized visualization of a concept and its associations or explanations (Novak Gowin, 1984). The use of concept mapping as an educational tool is well established through many branches of learning, including nursing (Schanze Grà ¼b-Niehaus, 2008; MacNeil, 2007; Trochim, 2009). Knowledge derived from the nursing process flows remarkably well into the overall design of a concept map. Although similar to other types of knowledge mapping, concept mapping provides a unique structure to gather major concepts together with direct linkages that can be easily visualized and readily examined. Properly prepared concept mapping will allow the learner to venture into all the learning domains, including cognitive, affective, and psychomotor; as well as allow the educator to move from a teacher-centered learning environment to one that is learner-centered. Concept mapping is designed to promote meaningful learning by the student, and allow for an effective formative or summative evaluation method by the educator. As the map is designed, the learner can incorporate new knowledge and reject inaccurate concepts and ideas. The map can also refine knowledge with examples or events, and allow for learning rather than route memorization. For the educator, the concept map can demonstrate the depth of the learners knowledge, and visually depict what the educator must emphasize to complete the learning process. The educator can also rapidly develop further learning opportunities through critical thinking exercises employing proposed changes to existing concept maps. Concept Mapping Theory Concept mapping was developed in 1972 as part of an effort at Cornell University to study the ability of young children to obtain basic scientific concepts. The design was the result of research into the cognitive psychology of learning and the constructivist epistemology. Based on Ausubels theory of learning, concept mapping attempts to emphasize the difference between rote learning and meaningful learning (Novak Caà ±as, 2006). Rote learning occurs when new information is added to the learners prior knowledge framework in a random and verbatim fashion. Thus, there is little permanent structure and the new information is rapidly forgotten. In meaningful learning, the new information is linked to the learners prior knowledge framework in a conscious and purposeful manner, thus producing a stable structure and substantial change in the way the learner experiences learning, in other words a conceptual change (National Institute for Science Educations College Level One Team, Universit y of Wisconsin, n.d.). This relationship is shown in Figure 1. Further studies and collaboration on concept mapping use and design, including work at the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (IHMC) in Florida, led to integration of concept mapping with software tools and enabled rapid application of the concept mapping framework to numerous disciplines. Concept Mapping Design In concept mapping, graphical representations are arranged in two predominant manners. First, in the hierarchical fashion, the main topic or question is displayed at the top of the diagram, with inclusive and general concepts near the top and specific, less general concepts arranged in a progressively downward pattern (see Figure 2). The other most common concept map design is in a circular fashion, known as the spider method, with the core topic or idea in the center immediately surrounded by inclusive and general concepts, becoming less specific and more general the further from the core (see Figure 3). Other less common concept mapping methods include the flow path method, where concepts are linked together in a progressively linear fashion to represent a final concept, and the systems method, where input and output concepts are related to the central concept in a production-line style of visualization. Still other methods of concept mapping may be developed to reflect the learners or the educators vision of representation. Typically, concepts are enclosed in boxes, circles, or other geometric shapes with the relationships identified by connecting lines. There are descriptors on the connecting lines that specify the nature of the relationships. Concepts may also be cross-linked to show relationships between domains of knowledge or concepts located in different areas of the map (Caà ±as, 2003). Examples, events, or possible solutions can also be included, although these may not be boxed or circled, and the connecting lines can be dashed or dotted to represent an unsubstantiated relationship. Concept Mapping Construction Many methods can be used to construct a concept map. In general, the process will begin as follows: identify a question related to a process or problem; identify the key concepts of the process or problem; rank these concepts in order by identifying the most descriptive and broadest concept then narrowing the descriptions until the most specific concept is listed last; connect the concepts by links, using notations to represent the relationship between the concepts and enable meaning to the linkage; provide examples, including social, personal, and professional examples to clarify the concept or the relationship between concepts; and then continue to link, add examples, and promote the relationships. Some constructors may find it useful to perform this design using post-it notes or index cards, and arranging their ideas on a table or white board to allow for ease of concept ranking, as well the ability to provide easy changes of relationships and rapid visualization of data. The novi ce and expert alike may also use various shapes and colors to designate concepts and subconcepts to make the map clearer. Concept Mapping Software Although concept mapping may be performed with pen, paper, and other non-electronic methods, there are a number of software programs that can be used to provide a variety of concept maps with ranges of detail. In addition to using traditional word-processing programs such as Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, or Corel WordPerfect or Corel Draw to construct concept maps, specific concept mapping software has been developed. The IHMC, a coalition of Florida universities, has developed Cmap Tools, a robust concept map developer that is free for use (IHMC, 2009). This software also includes a search feature that allows the user to search a wide variety of public Cmap databases for sample concept maps. Other software programs that are specific to concept map construction includes Axon Idea Processor, 3D Topicscape, Inspiration, MindGenious, MindMapper, MindView, Semantica, SmartDraw, Spinscape, and Tinderbox. Several of these software packages are available in multiple programming formats, in addition to several languages, and are free for download. Concept Mapping Example As an example to demonstrate concept-mapping construction, a learner is assigned to research the disease process sepsis, and make a presentation to the class. The learner studies several peer reviewed journal articles (DellaCroce, 2009; Nelson, LeMaster, Plast, Zahner, 2009; Steen, 2009) to obtain the latest information on the disease process, and decides to develop a concept map to explain the pathophysiology, risk factors, diagnostic tests, and treatments for sepsis. The learner develops a table to highlight the ideas that will be outlined on the concept map (see Table 1). Finally, using the CmapTools Knowledge Modeling Kit, Version 5.03, the learner prepares the concept map (see Figure 4). Preparation for Developing a Concept Map Steps Responses 1. Identify a question related to a process or problem What is sepsis? How is it diagnosed? What are the signs and symptoms? How is it treated? 2. Identify the key concepts of the process or problem Invading Microorganism, Sepsis, Inflammatory Response, Organ Failure, Systemic Inflammatory Response, Septic Shock, Treatments, Risk Factors, Infection, Death 3. Rank these concepts in order by identifying the most descriptive and broadest concept, then narrowing the descriptions until the most specific concept is listed last Rank 1) Invading Microorganism 2) Infection 3) Inflammatory Response 4) Systemic Inflammatory Response 5) Sepsis 6) Septic Shock, Severe Sepsis 7) Organ Failure 8) Treatment, Risk Factors, Diagnostic Tests 9) Death 4. Connect the concepts by links, using notations to represent the relationship between the concepts and enable meaning to the linkage Links are Pathophysiology, Leads To, Plus, Can Lead To, Organ Failure 5. Provide examples, including social, personal, and professional examples to clarify the concept or the relationship between concepts Vital Signs, Signs of Organ Failure, Criteria for Determining Sepsis Table 1: Preparation for Developing a Concept Map Concept Mapping Advantages Concept maps provide several advantages over other methods of instruction and evaluation. Concept maps can provide the learners access to a â€Å"big picture† view of the topic of interest, allowing the student to advance to conceptual understanding rather than simple memorization or rote learning. This in turn can provide the student the bases for critical thinking. Concept maps are also easy to construct. Concept maps can also be used as both an instructional strategy for the educator or a learning activity for the learner. As a learning activity, the student can acquire the desired knowledge, performance, and behaviors specified by the curriculum (Caputi Blach, 2008). In situations such as developing continuing education opportunities for existing nursing staff, the use of concept mapping can aid in learning new content through visualization, as many staff prefer visual or kinesthetic learning (Nursing Times, 2009). In cases where students need a platform to reduce anxiety generated prior to testing due to a lack of surety on whether the critical aspects of a clinical lesson were studied, the use of concepts maps can help students organize data, determine complex relationships between patient data and disease processes, and provide the student with an overall picture of the care provided to their patient (Hsu, 2004). Concept Mapping Disadvantages Although concept mapping has many advantages, some disadvantages exist. The wide variety of possible concept map designs can lead to additional evaluation time by the educator as students use different construction techniques. Grading of the differing concept maps may also lead to difficulties unless the educator uses strict grading criteria, such as a detailed assignment rubric. The use of concept mapping may also require a paradigm shift by learners used to only the memorization method of learning. This can sometimes cause difficulty as the learner transitions to the new method of learning. Concept Mapping Use in Learning Domains The cognitive domain includes knowledge and skill development. As cognitive learning occurs, the learner is able to recall facts, patterns, and concepts that will result in the development of intellect. Concept mapping is primarily based on the cognitive domain, as the learner combines concepts into a framework that can develop critical conceptions and critical thinking. The affective domain includes learning that is based on our interaction with our environment through feelings, values, motivations, and attitudes. Concept mapping draws into the affective domain through the construction of the framework, and the use of the environment to provide definition to the concept, and the use of values, attitudes, and feelings to link the concepts together to promote understanding. The psychomotor domain includes learning in the physical domain, such as movement, coordination, and development of motor skills. Psychomotor learning is measured through speed, precision, and techniques in execution. Concept mapping lends well to learning in the psychomotor domain, as the learner physically constructs the concept map using a variety of tools and software. Concept Mapping in Nursing Education Concept mapping is used at several levels in nursing education. By using concept mapping as a learning process in nursing undergraduate education, the educator can develop and refine critical thinking skills in the learner through generating ideas, promoting nonlinear relationships between patient data and complex disease processes, and forcing the learner to visualize the application of nursing theory to nursing practice (Abel Freeze, 2006; Phelps, Wallen, Cusack, Castro, Muehlbauer, et al., 2009). One of the most common uses of concept mapping in nursing is the use of concept mapping to demonstrate the nursing process in care planning. Each component of the nursing process (assessment, diagnosis, planning, intervention, and evaluation) can be presented around a disease process; or patient problems can be identified and relationships established between the problems to develop a holistic perspective of patient care (Taylor Wros, 2007). See Figure 5. Concept mapping can also be used effectively in formative, as well as summative assessment. In the formative assessment, the educator can provide a baseline concept map with the major concept listed and several basic relationships identified prior to lecture. The student can use the concept map during the lecture to identify further concepts and relationships, and build upon the baseline concept map to develop their knowledge base. Once the lecture is completed, the educator can use the learners maps to evaluate the effectiveness of their lecture, as well as the effectiveness of the learners attention, by examining the completed concept maps and comparing these maps to the lectures objectives (MacNeil, 2007). The baseline concept map can also be developed by the learner prior to class, such as in a homework assignment, and then completed during lecture as well. Figure 5: Sample care plan concept map (Ackley Ladwig, 2006). In a summative assessment, the educator can require a summative concept map at the end of the course to evaluate overall course objectives, as well as provide the learner with a valuable tool for future reference. Concept Mapping Function in a Learner Centered Environment Concept mapping has been used in both undergraduate and graduate nursing as an analytical tool to organize existing knowledge, synthesize new knowledge, and prioritize information in a logical, visual sequence. Concept mapping develops nonlinear cognitive function that can promote critical thinking and clinical decision making in nurses (Wilgis McConnell, 2008). This makes concept mapping an ideal strategy to switch the classroom from a teacher-centered to a learner-centered environment the learner can develop, adapt, and draw their learning directly from the concept map. Concept maps can be used by learners individually, or in small groups, to simplify complex processes and engage students in the learning process (Harrelson, 2006). As study guides, the concept maps can replace traditional question and answer study handouts with a visual map that can promote meaningful learning opposed to rote memorization (Caputi Blach, 2008). Summary Concept maps represent a collaborative learning strategy developed to take advantage of the difference between rote learning and meaningful learning. Concept maps can be used in all aspects of both undergraduate and graduate nursing, and can be used to facilitate education in all learning domains. As learners begin to analyze clinical data, the learner can begin to develop their critical thinking skills and begin to plan comprehensive care for their patients. As learners begin to study disease processes, the learners can appreciate the effects of interventions directly on patient outcomes. Educators can use concept mapping as a teaching, as well as evaluation strategy. References Abel, W., Freeze, M. (2006, September). Evaluation of concept mapping in an associate degree nursing program. Journal of Nursing Education, 45(9), 356-364. Retrieved August 30, 2009, from CINAHL with Full Text database. Ackley, B. J. Ladwig, G.B. (2006). Nursing Diagnosis Handbook, (7th ed.). Missouri: Mosby Elsevier. All, A., Huycke, L. (2007, May). Serial concept maps: tools for concept analysis. Journal of Nursing Education, 46(5), 217-224. Retrieved August 30, 2009, from CINAHL with Full Text database. All, A., Huycke, L., Fisher, M. (2003, November). Instructional tools for nursing education: concept maps. Nursing Education Perspectives, 24(6), 311-317. Retrieved August 30, 2009, from CINAHL with Full Text database. Caà ±as, A. J. (2003). A summary of literature pertaining to the use of concept mapping techniques and technologies for education and performance support. The Institute for Human and Machine Cognition. Retrieved September 19, 2009 from www.ihmc.us. Caputi, L. Blach, D. (2008). Teaching nursing using concept maps: A how to book. Glen Ellyn, Illinois: College of DuPage Press. Chiou, C. (2008, November). The effect of concept mapping on students learning achievements and interests. Innovations in Education Teaching International, 45(4), 375-387. Retrieved September 19, 2009, doi:10.1080/14703290802377240 Clayton, L. (2006, July). An effective, active teaching-learning method. Nursing Education Perspectives, 27(4), 197-203. Retrieved August 30, 2009, from CINAHL with Full Text database. Conceià §Ãƒ £o, S., Taylor, L. (2007, September). Using a constructivist approach with online concept maps: relationship between theory and nursing education. Nursing Education Perspectives, 28(5), 268-275. Retrieved August 30, 2009, from CINAHL with Full Text database. DellaCroce, H. (2009). Surviving sepsis: the role of the nurse. RN, 72(7), 16-21. 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